History OF PAPUA
The first Europeans to sight the
island of New Guinea were
the Portuguese in 1511, and what is now the Indonesian portion of the island
was subsequently visited by Spanish, Dutch, German, and English explorers. The
English attempted to found a colony near Manokwari (now in West Papua) in
1793. The Dutch claimed the western half of New Guinea in 1828, but their first
permanent administrative posts, at Fakfak (now in West Papua) and Manokwari,
were not set up until 1898. Haji Misbach, a Muslim communist, was exiled by the
Dutch to western New Guinea in 1924, and three years later about 1,300
communists were imprisoned there after an uprising in Java. The
Japanese occupied the northern part of Dutch New Guinea during World War II until Allied forces
recaptured Hollandia (now Jayapura) in
1944. The Netherlands regained sovereignty of western New Guinea at the end of
the war and retained it after officially recognizing Indonesia’s independence
in 1949. In 1962, after protracted negotiations, the region was placed under United Nations administration,
and in 1963 it was transferred to Indonesia, with provision that a plebiscite
would be held by 1969 to decide its future status.
Opposition to
Indonesian rule, led by the Free Papua Movement (Organisasi
Papua Merdeka or OPM), erupted almost immediately. The plebiscite took place in
1969, and, though the results were suspect, the area became the Indonesian
province of Irian Jaya. The OPM continued to resist Indonesian rule, and
violence broke out periodically. In 1999 then president of Indonesia B.J. Habibie divided
the area into three provinces: Irian Jaya, Central Irian Jaya, and West Irian Jaya. Largely perceived as a
“divide-and-rule” maneuver, the partition met with strong local opposition and
consequently was annulled the following year by Habibie’s successor, Abdurrahman Wahid. Wahid not only returned the region
to the status of a single province but also granted it a significant degree of
autonomy.
In January 2002,
just a few months after Megawati Sukarnoputri assumed
the presidency, Irian Jaya officially changed its name to Papua. Meanwhile,
Megawati resurrected the idea of dividing the province, and in 2003, without
consulting the residents of Papua or the local government, the province was
split into West Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Barat) and Papua. An interim governor
was appointed for West Irian Jaya, and a legislature was installed the
following year. Although the constitutionality of the division of the province
was disputed for some years, Papua and West Irian Jaya were officially
recognized as separate entities by Megawati’s successor, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Both provinces held direct
general elections in 2006, and in 2007 West Irian Jaya became known as West
Papua.
HISTORY OF MALUKU
Moluccas, Indonesian Maluku, also
known as Spice Islands, Indonesian islands of the Malay Archipelago,
lying between the islands of Celebes to the west and New Guinea to the east. The Philippines,
the Philippine Sea,
and the Pacific Ocean are to the north; the Arafura Sea and the island of Timor are to the south.
The islands comprise the two Indonesian propinsi (or provinsi; provinces) of North Maluku (Maluku Utara) and Maluku. The
principal islands of North Maluku are Halmahera, Obi, Morotai, Bacan, and the
main islands of the Sula archipelago (Taliabu, Mangole, and
Sulabesi); significant smaller islands include Ternate and Tidore. To the
south, the province of Maluku encompasses, most notably, the islands of Ceram (Seram), Buru, and Ambon, as well
as the Banda, Wetar, Babar, Tanimbar, Kai, andAru archipelagos. Area 30,462 square miles
(78,897 square km). Pop. (2000) 1,981,401; (2010) 2,571,593.
Geography
Most of the Moluccas are mountainous,
although the Tanimbar and Aru island groups are low and swampy. Earthquakes are frequent, and several islands,
especially Ternate and Banda,
have activevolcanoes.
The climate of the Moluccas is tropical, with rainfall varying from 80 to 150
inches (2,000 to 3,800 mm) annually in various locations. Some of the land has
been cleared for cultivation, but other areas remain covered with evergreen rainforest.
There are patches of open savanna,
and the coasts are often fringed with mangrove swamps. The Moluccas are a transition
zone between Asian and Australian fauna and flora, and the animal life and
vegetation of the islands include many species that are unique to the region.
The population of the islands is diverse, with the Ambonese,
Butonese (people from the island ofButon in Southeast Sulawesi),
and Kai peoples together constituting roughly one-third of the islands’
residents in relatively equal numbers. Most of the remainder of the population
consists of scores of smaller groups, many living in sparsely settled inland
regions, as well a notable minority of Chinese descent, concentrated primarily
in larger towns and urban areas. The principal cities of the Moluccas include Ambon (on the island of Ambon), in the
central region, and Ternate (on the island of Ternate), in
the north.
Dozens of languages are spoken in the Moluccas, although Malay (of which the national language,
Indonesian, is a dialect) has for centuries been used as a lingua franca;
in many areas, Malay has eclipsed local languages. Christianity (mostly Protestant)
and Islam are the dominant religions. A small
but notable minority practices Hinduism or Buddhism, and
some communities in the interior regions follow local religions. Except in
northern Halmahera, Morotai,
Ternate, Tidore, and several other areas of the northern Moluccas—where West Papuan languages are spoken—all languages spoken in the
islands belong to the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) family.
Most residents are engaged in agriculture, fishing, and forestry.
Rice, coconuts, and cocoa are widely grown, and fish, forest products, copra, and spices are among the most significant
exports. Petroleum is mined in limited quantities, primarily on Ceram.
History
The cloves of the northern Moluccas and the nutmeg of
the central islands were traded in Asia long before Europeans heard of the
so-called Spice Islands. The Portuguese established
themselves on the islands in 1512, beginning many decades of conflict that
caused great losses of life. The first major confrontation was between the
Portuguese and the reigning sultans of Ternate and Tidore; later, the Spanish, English, and Dutch wrestled
for control of the islands. Eventually, the Dutch emerged victorious, and they
earned large profits from their enterprise in the Moluccas. By the end of the
18th century, however, the spice trade had greatly diminished, and the islands
had become an economic backwater.
After World War II, in 1945, Indonesia declared
its independence, and the Moluccas joined the new republic. The Dutch, however,
recognized neither Indonesia’s sovereignty nor its inclusion of the eastern
islands. Rather, in an attempt to reestablish authority in the region, the
Dutch incorporated the Moluccas into the temporary autonomous state of East
Indonesia. In 1949 the Dutch officially granted independence to Indonesia,
including the Moluccas. In the following year Christian Ambonese led a revolt
against the new republic and subsequently formed the short-lived Republic of
South Moluccas. Near the end of the 20th century, tensions between Christians
and the large Muslim population of the region escalated into violence that not
only killed several thousand people but displaced tens of thousands more. Owing
largely to the frequency of such conflicts, the islands were divided
administratively into the provinces of North Maluku and Maluku in 1999.
HISTORY OF AMBON
Ambon, formerly Amboina or Amboyna, island and municipality of Maluku propinsi (or provinsi; province), Indonesia. It
is one of the islands of the Moluccas (Maluku) group.
Ambon island is located 7 miles (11 km) off
the southwestern coast of the island of Ceram (Seram). Its relief is generally
hilly, with Mount Salhatu rising to 3,405 feet (1,038 metres). Although subject
to earthquakes, Ambon has no active volcanoes, but it does have some hot
springs and hot-gas vents, or solfataras. It
has a tropical climate with an abundant rainfall. The hard and knotty Ambon
wood, of great value for ornamental woodwork, is obtained from Ceram. There are
few mammals indigenous to Ambon, but birds include a racquet-tailed kingfisher,
a crimson lory, and a vivid crimson brush-tongued parrot. Many varieties of
fish live in Ambon Bay, whose eastern end contains some marine gardens.
Ambon’s clove
trade first attracted the Portuguese,
who named the island and founded a settlement in 1521. The Dutch captured the Portuguese fort in 1605,
took over the spice trade, and in 1623 destroyed a British settlement in the Amboina Massacre.
The British took it in 1796, and after it had exchanged hands twice between the
British and Dutch, it was restored finally to the latter in 1814. An important
naval base, Ambon was occupied by Japan during World War II.
In 1950, after Indonesian independence, the Ambonese—many of whom had been educated in Christian schools
and served in the Dutch administration and army—found their new social and
economic prospects unpromising; they refused to join the unitary Republic of
Indonesia and proclaimed an independent South Moluccan Republic. The movement
was suppressed by military action, though guerrilla warfare continued in Ceram
for more than a decade, and many Ambonese fled to the Netherlands.
The Ambonese are mainly Melanesian; they also live in
the Uliasers and on the nearby Ceram coast. The Muslims generally live in the
north, and the Christians, in the majority and overwhelmingly Protestant, the
south. The language, related to Timorese, serves as a regional lingua franca:
it is of the Indonesian family, with many Portuguese and Dutch loanwords.
Agricultural
production, generally insignificant, includes corn (maize), coffee, root crops,
sago, and cloves. Copra, sugar,
and fish are exported, and palm wine is made. Ambon’s port is the chief centre
for shipment of produce and for distribution of imports. The island has
adequate local roads, a government radio station, a telephone system, and
Pattimura airport (on the western side of the harbour). Cultural amenities
include Universitas Pattimura Ambon (1956), a religious college, and a museum.
The
port city of Ambon,
on Laitimor Peninsula on the eastern side of the bay, is about 8 miles (13 km)
from the harbour’s outer entrance. The capital of Maluku province, it was known
under the Dutch for its wide, tree-lined streets; stone houses; and imposing
public buildings, including a hospital, a church dating from earliest
settlement, and Fort Victoria, built in the early 17th century and later
restored. Much of this, including government buildings and barracks, was
destroyed in World War II and the following years. Since 1999, fighting between
Christians and Muslims on Ambon has produced a mass exodus of Muslims,
primarily to Buton in Celebes (Sulawesi),
and an influx of Christians fleeing conflict in other parts of central Maluku,
such as Ceram, Buru, and Sula islands.
Area island, 294 square miles (761 square km). Pop. (2000) city, 156,042;
(2010) city, 305,984.
HISTORY
OF PALEMBANG
Palembang, kota (city)
and capital of South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) propinsi (or provinsi; province), Indonesia. It
lies on both banks of the Musi River,
there spanned by the Ampera Bridge, one of Indonesia’s longest bridges.
Palembang is the second largest city on the island of Sumatra(after Medan). Its
population is predominantly Malay, with a
notable Chinese minority.
Palembang served
as the capital of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire from the 7th to the late 12th century,
when the empire’s centre shifted to the city of Jambi to the northwest. In the 13th century
Palembang came under the domination of the Hindu Majapahit empire,
which was based on the neighbouring island of Java. When
Palembang rejected Javanese authority in the late 14th century,
the empire responded by destroying the city. Although the ravaged Palembang
remained a nominal vassal of Majapahit, the city was governed by Chinese
merchants until Majapahit disintegrated about the turn of the 16th century.
Meanwhile, Palembang had converted to Islam, and in
the mid-17th century the city became the seat of a sultanate.
In 1617 the Dutch East India Company set up a trading post in Palembang,
and in 1659, following several massacres of its employees by the local
population, it built a fort. The sultanate intermittently was under British
suzerainty (1811–14; 1818–21) and was finally abolished by the Dutch in 1823
(although the sultan did not surrender until 1825). Palembang was occupied
(1942–45) by Japan during World War II.
In 1948 the city became the capital of the autonomous state of South Sumatra,
which joined the Republic of Indonesia in 1950. In 2006 the Palembang sultanate
was revived through the installation of a new sultan, Mahmud Badaruddin III,
who served less as an administrator than as a symbol of the city’s social and
cultural heritage.
Besides the Ampera
Bridge, Palembang’s notable landmarks include the Great Mosque (1740; minaret
1753), the Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Museum, which is housed in the palace of
the city’s early 19th-century sultan, tombs of several sultans, and Sriwijaya
University (1960). The port city is accessible to ocean traffic on the Musi River and has considerable trade with ports
on the Malay Peninsula and in Thailand and China as well as other Indonesian ports.
Exports include rubber, coffee, timber, petroleum products, coal, tea, spices,
resin, rattan, cinchona, and pepper. There are also shipyards, iron foundries,
machine shops, rubber plants, and fertilizer factories. The suburbs of
Sungaigerong and Plaju, located to the east, have large oil refineries.
Palembang is linked to the surrounding area by rail and road, and it also has
an airport offering domestic flights and limited international service to Malaysia. Pop.
(2010) 1,440,678.
HISTORY OF BALI
Bali, island and propinsi (or provinsi; province)
in the LesserSunda Islands, Indonesia. It
is situated 1 mile (1.6 km) east of the island of Java,
separated by the narrow Bali Strait. Area province, 2,232 square miles (5,780
square km). Pop. (2000) province, 3,151,162; (2010) province, 3,890,757.
Geography
Most of Bali is mountainous (essentially an extension
of the central mountain chain in Java), the highest point being Mount Agung,
or Bali Peak, 10,308 feet (3,142 metres) in height and known locally as the
“navel of the world.” It proved to be an active volcano,
erupting in 1963 (after a dormancy of 120 years), killing more than 1,500
persons and leaving thousands homeless. The main lowland is south of the
central mountains. The period of the southeast monsoon (May to November) is the
dry season. Bali’s flora (mostly hilly tropical rain forest) and fauna resemble
those of Java. Some
teak grows on Bali, and the giant banyan (waringin) trees are
held sacred by the Balinese.
Tigers are found in the west, and deer and wild pigs are numerous.
When Islam triumphed over Hinduism in Java (16th century), Bali became a
refuge for many Hindu nobles, priests, and intellectuals. Today it is the only
remaining stronghold of Hinduism in the archipelago, and Balinese life is
centred on religion—a blend of Hinduism (especially that of the Shaivite sect), Buddhism,
Malay ancestor cult, and animistic and magical beliefs and practices. Places of
worship are numerous and widespread, and there is a firm belief in
reincarnation. Caste is observed, though less strictly than is the case in
India, because the great majority of the population belongs to the Sudra, the
lowest caste. The
nobility is divided into priests (Brahman), the military and ruling royalty
(Kshatriya), and the merchants (Vaishya). Some Muslims and Chinese live in
northern and western Bali, and there are a few Christians. The Balinese
language is distinct from that of eastern Java, but the upper-class form
contains many Javanese and Sanskrit words.
The two major towns are Singaraja and Denpasar, the
provincial capital; others include Klungkung, a centre of wood carving and gold
and silver industries; Gianyar, with a lively market; Kuta, Sanur, and Nusa
Dua, centres of the flourishing tourist trade; and Ubud, in the foothills, a
centre for European and American artists, with a fine art museum. All Balinese villages
have temples and an assembly hall, usually located on a square that serves for
festivals and markets. Each family lives in its own compound surrounded by
earthen or stone walls.
Balinese farmers, raising principally rice, are
organized into cooperative water-control boards. The average farm is 2.5 acres
(1 hectare). About one-fourth of the agricultural acreage is irrigated, the
remainder being used for yams, cassava, corn (maize), coconuts, fruits, and,
occasionally, oil palm and coffee plantings. A large cattle population
is supplemented by smaller livestock. There are several meat-processing plants;
fishing is only a minor occupation. Food must be imported because of the
growing population, but exports include beef, pork, coffee, copra, and palm
oil. Tourism and the sale of craft articles are important to the economy. There
is an airport near Denpasar.
The Balinese are fond of music, poetry, dancing, and
festivals, are extraordinarily able in arts and crafts, and are passionately
fond of betting games, especially cockfighting. A typical Balinesegamelan (orchestra)
consists of various percussion instruments, a two-string violin, and a flute;
and every village has its gamelan club.
Stage plays and, especially, dancing are an integral part of Balinese life,
serving magico-religious purposes or telling stories by pantomime. The artistic
temperament is also evident in sculpture, painting, silverwork, and wood
carving and bone carving and in the animal-shaped wooden coffins in which
corpses are carried to the cremation ground.
History
Visited by Chinese traders and Indian literati, the Balinese had
embraced Hinduism by the 7th century ce.
Mahendradatta, the mother of Airlangga (who ruled Java from 1019 to c. 1049), married Udayana, the Balinese
king, and many Javanese Hindus immigrated to Bali. In 1284 Kertanagara, last king of Tumapel (Singhasari) in Java,
captured Bali; upon his death in 1292, the island regained its independence.
Bali came under the rule of the Majapahit empire of
eastern Java in 1343 and continued under the Majapahits until the empire was
overthrown in 1478 by Muslims. The Dutchfirst visited Bali in 1597, when the island was
divided among a number of warring Muslim states. The Dutch annexed the northern
Balinese states of Buleleng and Jembrana in 1882, and, in the 1894 Dutch
invasion of nearby Lombok Island,
the Balinese prince, Anak Agung Ktut, was killed. In 1906 the Dutch attacked
Denpasar, massacred about 3,600 Balinese, and captured the whole island.
Bali was occupied by the Japanese during World War II. In 1946 a battle was fought between Dutch
troops and Indonesian revolutionary forces at Marga in western Bali. The island
became part of the Republic of Indonesia in 1950. A terrorist bombing
on the island in 2002 killed some 200 people.
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